Mind Messaging: Thoughts Transmitted by Brain-to-Brain Link

In an experiment that sounds more like science fiction than reality, two humans were able to send greetings to each other using only a digital connection linking their brains.

Using noninvasive means, researchers made brain recordings of a person in India thinking the words "hola" and "ciao," and then decoded and emailed the messages to France, where a machine converted the words into brain stimulation in another person, who perceived the signals as flashes of light. From the sequence of flashes, the French recipient was able to successfully interpret the greetings, according to a new study published today (Sept. 5) in the journal PLOS ONE. [Inside the Brain: A Photo Journey Through Time]

The researchers wanted to know if it is possible for two people to communicate by reading out the brain activity of one person and injecting that activity into a second person.

"Could we develop an experiment that would bypass the talking or typing part of [the] Internet and establish direct brain-to-brain communication between subjects located far away from each other, in India and France?" co-author Dr. Alvaro Pascual-Leone said in a statement. Pascual-Leone is a neurologist at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center in Boston, and a professor at Harvard Medical School, in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

To answer that question, Pascual-Leone and his colleagues at Starlab Barcelona, in Spain, and Axilum Robotics, in Strasbourg, France, turned to several widely used brain technologies.

Electroencephalogram, or EEG, recordings are taken by placing a cap of electrodes on a person's scalp, and recording the electrical activity of large regions of the brain's cortex. Previous studies have recorded EEG from a person thinking about an action, such as moving his or her arm, while a computer translates the signal into an output used to move a robotic exoskeleton or drive a wheelchair.

In other studies, a method called transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has been used to stimulate parts of the brain by applying tiny electrical currents to the scalp. This causes the neurons in a certain area to fire. For example, TMS can make a person's muscles twitch or can produce flashes of light in his or her visual field.

In the current study, the researchers linked these two processes, EEG recording and TMS. Four healthy volunteers took part in the mind-messaging experiment. One person, (the word sender) was hooked up to an EEG-based brain-computer interface; the other three people (the word recipients) received the messages in the form of TMS, and had to interpret the words based on the flashes they saw.

Using the system, the message sender, in India, transmitted the words "hola" (Spanish for "hello") and "Ciao" (Italian for "hello"/"goodbye") to the message recipients in France, located 5,000 miles (8,000 kilometers) away. All three recipients correctly translated the message, the researchers said.

In a second experiment, with volunteers in Spain and France, the total error rate for message transmission was 15 percent, and more of the error came from decoding the words than from encoding them, the researchers said.

The findings show it is possible to transmit a thought (albeit a very basic one) from one person to another without requiring the transmitter to speak or write, the researchers said.

"We believe these experiments represent an important first step in exploring the feasibility of complementing or bypassing traditional language-based or motor-based communication," Pascual-Leone said.

But the researchers stop short of calling it telepathy. The dictionary defines telepathy as communicating thoughts directly from one mind to another without using words or signals, but most scientists probably have something more sophisticated in mind than producing a light flash that means "hello."

Scientists previously demonstrated a human brain-to-brain connection that allowed one person to transmit a command to move another person's finger. And other experiments have demonstrated a kind of brain-to-brain connection between two rats and between two monkeys. Still, the technology remains in its early stages, most experts agree.

Beyin Dalgaları

Beyin titreşimlerinin tespiti ilk defa Richard Caton tarafından 1875 yılında yapıldı. Bugüne kadar geçen yüz otuz yıla rağmen bu konuda hala sırlarını çözemediğimiz beyin, değişik dalga boylarında titreşiyor. Taşıdığımız bir sürü duygunun ve ruh halimizin beynimizde titreşimsel bir karşılığı olduğunu öğrenmek ise yıllarımızı aldı.
Yukarıdaki cümlelerin içinde saklı duyguların her birinde beynimiz, ayrı dalga boyunda frekanslarda titreşimler yayıyor. İsimlendirilen her dalga boyunun salınımı, duygu değişimleri sırasında frekansını değiştiriyor.
Kısacası Beyniniz bir radyo gibidir. elektrik dalgalarını alır ve yayar. Frekanslar, elektrik faaliyetlerinin ölçüldüğü ve grafiğinin çıkarıldığı aralıklardır. Her şey bir ölçüde frekans yaydığı için frekanslar etrafınızı sarar ve bedeninize bile nüfuz eder. Yeryüzünün ise kendine özgü frekansları vardır.
Bedeniniz hareket ettiğinde, bu hareketler etrafınıza iletilir. İyonosfer katmanı (buna iyonosferik kovuk da denir) yaklaşık 9.5 cps’lik(saniyedeki devirler, 7.5 civarındaydı ama şimdi çok hızlı şekilde artıyor) frekansa sahiptir. Bedeniniz 6.8 ve 9.5 Hz arasında titreşiyor. İskeletiniz ve iç organlarınızın birbiriyle uyumlu hareketleri yaklaşık 8 ile 9 cps hızındadır. Bu da şu anlama gelir: bedeniniz ve iyonosferik kovuk toplamda eş zamanlı hareket eder.
Gezegenle birlikte yankılanırsınız ve birbirinizle enerji alışverişinde bulunursunuz. Ne kadar uzaklıktan enerjinizi yeryüzünün elektromanyetik kovuğuyla paylaşabilir ve enerjinizi yayabilirsiniz? Yaklaşık 40.000 km. ya da gezegenin yaklaşık tüm çevre uzunluğu kadar. Başka bir deyişle, zihninizden ve bedeninizden gelen sinyaller bu iyonosfer kovuğu vasıtasıyla tüm gezegene yaklaşık saniyenin yetmişte biri kadar hızda yayılır. İnsan bedenleri ve çevre arasındaki frekans bağı nedeniyle güneş/ay/fırtına/gökgürültüsü ve insan davranışlarındaki değişiklikler (mesela: dolunay deliliği) arasında bir ilişki vardır. Hatta benzer ilişki güneş ışınları ile hisse senedi fiyatları arasında da buna benzer bir ilişki vardır. Sadece biz çevremizi etkilemiyoruz, çevremiz de bizi etkiliyor. Çünkü her ikimiz de aynı frekansta (7-9.5 cps) titreşiyoruz. Ya da daha iyi bir ifadeyle biz ve gezegen aynı şekilde frekans değiştiriyoruz.
Zihin gücü tekniklerini uygulamaya başladığınızda düşünceleriniz “bulanık geçici arzular” peşinde olmadığında isteğiniz somut ve gerçek olur. Zihnin frekanslarını anladığınızda başkalarının düşünce dalgalarının da kolaylıkla sizinkiyle uyumlu olduğunu göreceksiniz. Gezegensel frekans arttıkça sizin kişisel frekansınız da artacak. Bu nedenle, gerçekleştirme gücünüzü daha kolay ve daha hızlı kullanabileceksiniz. Bu noktadaki şunu bilmelisiniz ki içinde bulunduğumuz gezegenin modern zamanı zihin gücünüzü geliştirmek için en iyi zamandır.
İnsan beyninin yaptığı zihinsel aktiviteye göre belli frekansları vardır.

BETA: 14-30 cps – zihin fiziksel bir aktivite ile meşgulse ya da tetikteyse
ALFA: 7-13 cps – hayal kurduğunuzda ya da düşüncelere daldığınızda
TETA: 3.5-7 cps – uyuya kaldığınız an
DELTA: 0.5-3.5 cps – en derin uykuya daldığınız an
Frekansları Teta’dan Alfa’ya be Beta’ya değişmesine dikkat edin. Nasıl arttığını fark ettiniz mi? Gezegenin frekansı artıyor…bu gezegeninde uyandığı anlamına gelir mi?.Düşüncelerinizin sizin ve çevreniz üzerinde farklı etkileri olur.
Alfa ve Teta durumu özellikle en yararlı olanlarıdır ve bu iki beyin durumuna daha çok başvurulur. Beyin durumu ne kadar düşerse kafanız o kadar rahattır.
Bu beyin durumlarına ulaşmak;

1. Beyin dalgalarınız iyonosferin doğal frekansına daha yakın olacaktır…yani çevrenizi lehinize kullanmak ve etkilemek daha kolay olacaktır. Çevre derken bulutlardan, yerden, ağaçlardan bahsetmiyoruz…yaşadığınız alanı kapsayan mekanı,enerjiyi,zamanı kastetiyoruz.
2. Zihninizi kullanmak için farkındalığınız ve yeteneğiniz daha kolay ve daha güçlü hale gelecektir. Bu tüm zihin gücü çalışmanızı etkileyecektir. Farkındalığın çeşitli hallerine ve bilincin çeşitli aşamalarına ulaşabileceksiniz.
3. Kalp atışınız yavaşlayacak ve bedensel fonksiyonlarınız rahat konuma gelecektir. Unutmayın giriş bölümünde içsel bedensel fonksiyonlarınızla bilinçaltınız nasıl ilgileniyordu? Zihninizin uğraşacağı bir sürü işi var, hücre bölünmesinden tutun, kan pompalamaya, sinir uyaranlarını analiz etmekten anı depolamaya kadar bir sürü şey. Zihniniz kesinlikle meşguldür ve tüm bunlar olurken sizde başka şeylerle uğraşıyorsunuzdur. Bunları düşünmenize bile gerek yoktur. Temel olarak, beyin dalgalarınız yavaşladıkça ve zihniniz daha da rahatladıkça bedeninizde rahatlar. O zaman zihniniz bedeninizle daha az uğraşır. Farkında olmayan zihniniz teknikleriniz üzerinde daha çok vakte sahip olur. Beden rahatladığında beyninize daha fazla kan pompalanır ve beyin daha fazla beslenir. Bunun tam tersi beden rahatlamayıncaya kadar bu teknikleri uygulayamayacağınız anlamına gelmez. Enerji seviyeniz açısından bazı şeyleri kolaylaştırmak için teknikleri boş mideyle deneyin (aç değil, boş) farkı hissedeceksiniz.
4. Beyin dalgalarınız yavaşladıkça daha iyi odaklanırsınız.
5. Siz beyninizin farklı bölümlerine ve fonksiyonlarına ulaşırken bu konuda eğitimsiz olanlara fark atarsınız.
Düşünceleriniz vardığı yerde engelleri rahatlıkla aşabilir. Yani düşünceleriniz bir başkasının düşüncelerine rahatlıkla karışabilecek yeteneğe sahiptir. Bu halde kişiyi programlayabilirsiniz. Beyninizi alfa durumuna getirmek zihninizi lehinize kullanmanın ve etkilemenin ilk anahtarıdır.
Elektroensefalograf beyindeki elektriksel faaliyetleri ölçer. Bu ölçümler, beyinde her biri kendine özgü işlevlere sahip dört farklı durum saptanmıştır. Bunlar Alfa, Beta, Teta, ve Delta' dır.

BETA DALGALARI:
Beta, fazlasıyla meşgul olduğumuz hallerde devreye girer. Hızlı, seri ve inişli çıkışlı dalgalardır. Heyecanımız arttığında veya dış faktörlerce fazlaca uyarıldığımızda beta dalgaları yayınlamaya başlarız. Konuşan biri, ders veren bir öğretmen beta dalgaları yayar. Konuşma sırasında tartışma çıkarsa, ortalık gerginleşirse beta dalgalarının frekansı artar.

ALFA DALGALARI:
Alfa dalgaları ise; rahatlayınca, heyecan yatıştığında devreye girer. Alfa dalgalarının beta dalgalarına kıyasla genliği daha yüksek, frekansı daha düşük. Beta dalgaları saniyede 15 ila 40 Hz yaparken, alfa dalgaları saniyede 9 ila 14 Hz arasında devir yapıyor. Elinizdeki iş bitince, bir toplantıdan dışarıya çıkıp hava aldığınızda alfa dalgaları gene faaliyete geçiyor.

TETA DALGALARI:
Teta, zihnimizin bilinçsiz olduğu hallerde ortaya çıkmakta. Frekansı çok düşüktür, saniyede 5 ila 8 Hz arası .
Teta dalgaları bastırılmış duygular ortaya çıktığında aktifleşiyor. Yaratıcılık için ihtiyaç duyulan beyinsel bağlantılar da teta dalgaları sayesinde kuruluyor.
Uzun bir yolda ilerlerken, yürüyüşe çıkıp bedeninizi dinlendirmek istediğinizde, gene ilginç ve yaratıcı fikirlerin dalgası teta işbaşındadır.

DELTA DALGALARI:
Delta, frekansı en düşük olan dalgadır tespit edilenler arasında. Saniyede 1.5 ila 4 Hz arasında gidip gelir. Son derece de düzensiz yayılır. Bilinçsiz zihnin en derinlerinde, uykunun en derin saatlerinde bu dalgaları yayar beynimiz.
Yatakta kitap okurken de yayılan dalgalar gene betaya dönüverir. Uykumuz gelince önce düşük frekanslı beta, kitabı okumayı bırakıp yanı başınıza koyunca alfa, uykuya geçmeye başlayınca teta, uyku derinleşince de deta devreye giriyor.

Araştırmalar teta ve delta dalgalarının özellikle yaratıcılıkla ilgili olduğunu, bu dalgaların beynimizin içine doğru odaklanmamıza yardım ettiğini ve yaratıcı düşünceyi ortaya çıkardığını ileri sürüyorlar. Bu dalgaların en aktif olduğu dönem uykudan uyanma dönemidir. Bu nedenle uykudan uyanma süreci yaratıcılık açısından en yararlı dönemdir. Buna örnek olarak Descartes, en çok uyandıktan sonra, yatakta uykulu, yarı uykulu bulurmuş yeni fikirleri.

Yaratıcılık ile beynin dalgaları arasında ilintili olduğu belirginleştikçe, beynin elektriksel çalışmasını düzenleme faaliyetleri de daha popülerleşiyor. Birçok uzak doğu geleneği, aslında beynin kendisini dingin bir hale getirmeye yarıyor.

Beynin dalgalarına egemen olduğunuzda, sinirlenmeyen, aşırı heyecana kapılmayan, zihni yaratıcılık sürecini uzatabilen biri haline geliyorsunuz. Kas gücünü çalıştırır gibi beynin dalgalarını çalıştırabiliyor, istediğiniz yönde harekete geçirebiliyorsunuz. Ne düşünüyorsanız osunuz. kendinize iyilik yapın olumsuz şeylerden ziyade olumlu düşünün.

Typography

8 Remarkable Early Maps

Humans were scratching crude maps on cave walls as far back as the Paleolithic era, but the science of cartography, or mapmaking, is only a little more than 2,000 years old. During that time, the world’s great geographers have wrestled with the problem of portraying a round globe on a flat piece of a paper, and their efforts have often had major implication for politics, art, science and exploration. From an ancient clay tablet to a 16th century projection that is still used today, explore eight of the most important maps from the early history of cartography.

The Babylonian World Map

Babylonian map of the world. (Credit: VCG Wilson/Corbis/Getty Images)

History’s earliest known world map was scratched on clay tablets in the ancient city of Babylon sometime around 600 B.C. The star-shaped map measures just five-by-three inches and shows the world as a flat disc surrounded by an ocean, or “bitter river.” Babylon and the Euphrates River are depicted in the center as a pair of rectangles, while the neighboring cities of Assyria and Susa are shown as small, circular blobs. Outside of the disc sit a collection of triangular wedges, which depict far-off islands with mysterious labels such as “beyond the flight of birds” and “a place where the sun cannot be seen.” The accompanying cuneiform text describes these unknown lands as being populated by mythological beasts, which suggests that the map shows both real geographical features and elements of Babylonian cosmology.

Ptolemy’s Geography

Medieval reconstruction of one of Ptolemy’s maps. (Credit: Public Domain)

Many elements of the science of cartography can trace their origins to the work of the Greek scholar Claudius Ptolemaeus, better known as Ptolemy. Around 150 A.D., he produced “Geography,” an eight-volume textbook that included some of the first maps to use mathematical principles. Ptolemy’s book has a few notable errors—the Indian Ocean, for example, is depicted as a sea—yet it’s still remarkable for its breadth and detail. It boasts more than 8,000 different place names as well as references to such far-flung locales as Iceland and Korea, all of which are plotted according to geometric points of latitude and longitude. Sadly, no maps drawn by Ptolemy have survived to today. His atlas seems to have disappeared for over a thousand years, and it wasn’t until the 13th century that Byzantine scholars began making projections using his coordinates.

The Peutinger Map

The Peutinger Map. (Credit: Public Domain)

During the days when all roads led to Rome, the so-called Peutinger Map would have served as a handy guide to the Empire’s transportation network. The oddly shaped map is 22 feet long and just one foot wide, and depicts the course of more 60,000 miles of Roman roads stretching from Western Europe to the Middle East. An additional section also shows India, Sri Lanka and other parts of Asia. Much like a modern travel guide, the map includes the locations of more than 500 cities along with some 3,500 other points of interest such as way stations, temples, forests, rivers and even spas. The original Peutinger map was probably completed sometime around the 4th century A.D., but the version that exists today is a 13th century copy. It is named for the German scholar Konrad Peutinger, who took ownership of it in the early 1500s.

The Tabula Rogeriana

The Tabula Rogeriana. (Credit: Public Domain)

In the 12th century A.D., the renowned Muslim scholar al-Idrisi was invited to the court of the Norman King Roger II and asked to produce a book on geography. The result was the “Tabula Rogeriania,” also known by its longer title, “A Guide to Pleasant Journeys into Faraway Lands.” The book featured several regional maps as well as a projection of the known world, which depicted the entirety of Eurasia and a large section of Africa. By drawing from interviews with travelers and his own wanderings through Europe, al-Idrisi also compiled extensive data on the climate, politics and culture of different regions. The Tabula Rogeriana remained among the world’s most accurate maps for several centuries, but it may appear strange at first glance—in the tradition of Islamic cartographers, al-Idrisi drew it with south positioned at the top.

The Da Ming Hun Yi Tu

The Da Ming Hun Yi Tu. (Credit: Public Domain)

One of the earliest surviving world maps from the Far East, China’s Da Ming Hun Yi Tu, or “Amalgamated Map of the Ming Empire,” was drawn on silk as early as 1389. The map spans the entire Eurasian continent from Japan to the Atlantic Ocean, and includes detailed markings of mountain ranges, rivers and administrative centers. It is particularly notable for the way in which it distorts the size of various landmasses. Mainland China sits like a monolith in the middle of the map, while Japan and Korea are both far larger than India. The African continent, meanwhile, is depicted as a relatively small peninsula with what appears to be a giant lake in its center. Despite these peculiarities, the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu is often cited as the first map to show Africa with a southern tip that could be circumnavigated.

The Cantino Planisphere

The Cantino Planisphere. (Credit: The Cantino Planisphere/Getty Images)

The Cantino Planisphere was once at the center of an act of cartographic theft. In 1502, an Italian duke commissioned an agent named Alberto Cantino to acquire a map of the geographic discoveries of the Kingdom of Portugal, which was notorious for closely guarding the location of the new lands found by its explorers. Cantino succeeded in his mission, and the map that he smuggled out of Portugal has since become famous. Not only does it depict Africa, India and Europe in unprecedented detail, it stands as one of the earliest known maps to show the coastlines of Portugal’s “New World” territories in South America. To the north of Brazil, the map also includes a small grouping of landmasses that appear to be Cuba, Hispaniola and part of the American East Coast.

The Waldseemüller World Map

The Waldseemüller World Map, 1507. (Credit: Heritage Images / Getty Images)

Martin Waldseemüller is far from a household name, but perhaps he should be—he helped give the American continents their name. In 1507, the German cartographer produced the first map in history to depict the New World as a distinct landmass with the Pacific Ocean on its western side. In honor of the Italian navigator Amerigo Vespucci, who had first posited the separate continent theory, Waldseemüller and collaborator Matthias Ringmann dubbed these new Western Hemisphere territories “America.” The Waldseemüller map has since been called “America’s birth certificate,” but it also bears the distinction of being the most expensive world map of all time. In 2003, the Library of Congress purchased the only surviving copy for a whopping $10 million.

The Mercator Projection

Mercator’s 1569 map—the first to employ his projection style. (Credit: Public Domain)

Once a staple of school classrooms the world over, the famed Mercator projection has also been the subject of considerable debate and controversy. The Flemish cartographer Gerardus Mercator first designed the map style in 1569 as a way of displaying the spherical Earth on a flat, rectangular surface. With this in mind, he drew a world map with parallels of latitude that are spaced increasingly far apart as they move away from the equator. This feature made the Mercator projection invaluable to mariners, who could use it to sail in straight lines with a constant compass bearing, but it also meant that the relative size of different landmasses was hugely distorted. Greenland and other polar regions appear far larger than they actually are, while equatorial landmasses such as Africa and South America are heavily compressed. The Mercator projection nevertheless remained a fixture of atlases until the 20th century, when critics began to denounce it as inaccurate. While it’s still used as a navigational aid, it has since been largely supplanted by more modern, oval-shaped maps such as the Robinson and Winkel Tripel projections.

All Nobel Prizes

All Nobel Prizes

Black Painting (Francisco Goya)

The Black Paintings (Spanish: Pinturas negras) is the name given to a group of fourteen paintings by Francisco Goya from the later years of his life, likely between 1819 and 1823. They portray intense, haunting themes, reflective of both his fear of insanity and his bleak outlook on humanity. In 1819, at the age of 72, Goya moved into a two-story house outside Madrid that was called Quinta del Sordo (Deaf Man's Villa). Although the house had been named after the previous owner, who was deaf, Goya too was nearly deaf at the time as a result of an illness he had suffered when he was 46. The paintings originally were painted as murals on the walls of the house, later being "hacked off the walls and attached to canvas." Currently they are held in the Museo del Prado in Madrid.

After the Napoleonic Wars and the internal turmoil of the changing Spanish government, Goya developed an embittered attitude toward mankind. He had a first-hand and acute awareness of panic, terror, fear and hysteria. He had survived two near-fatal illnesses, and grew increasingly anxious and impatient in fear of relapse. The combination of these factors is thought to have led to his production of the fourteen works known collectively as the Black Paintings.

Using oil paints and working directly on the walls of his dining and sitting rooms, Goya created works with dark, disturbing themes. The paintings were not commissioned and were not meant to leave his home. It is likely that the artist never intended the works for public exhibition: "...these paintings are as close to being hermetically private as any that have ever been produced in the history of Western art."

Goya did not give titles to the paintings, or if he did, he never revealed them. Most names used for them are designations employed by art historians. Initially, they were catalogued in 1828 by Goya’s friend, Antonio Brugada. The series is made up of the following pictures: Atropos (The Fates) (Átropos/Las Parcas), Two Old Men (Dos viejos/Un viejo y un fraile), Two Old Men Eating Soup (Dos viejos comiendo sopa), Fight with Cudgels (Duelo a garrotazos/La riña), Witches' Sabbath (Aquelarre/El Gran Cabrón), Men Reading (Hombres leyendo), Judith and Holofernes (Judith y Holofernes), A Pilgrimage to San Isidro (La romería de San Isidro), Women Laughing (Mujeres riendo), Procession of the Holy Office (Peregrinación a la fuente de San Isidro/Procesión del Santo Oficio), The Dog (Perro semihundido/El perro), Saturn Devouring His Son (Saturno devorando a un hijo), La Leocadia (Una manola: doña Leocadia Zorrilla), and Fantastic Vision (Visión fantástica/Asmodea).

Lithography

Lithography (from Ancient Greek λίθος, lithos, meaning "stone", and γράφειν, graphein, meaning "to write") is a method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone (lithographic limestone) or a metal plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by German author and actor Alois Senefelder as a cheap method of publishing theatrical works. Lithography can be used to print text or artwork onto paper or other suitable material.

Lithography originally used an image drawn with oil, fat, or wax onto the surface of a smooth, level lithographic limestone plate. The stone was treated with a mixture of acid and gum arabic, etching the portions of the stone that were not protected by the grease-based image. When the stone was subsequently moistened, these etched areas retained water; an oil-based ink could then be applied and would be repelled by the water, sticking only to the original drawing. The ink would finally be transferred to a blank paper sheet, producing a printed page. This traditional technique is still used in some fine art printmaking applications.

In modern lithography, the image is made of a polymer coating applied to a flexible aluminum plate. The image can be printed directly from the plate (the orientation of the image is reversed), or it can be offset, by transferring the image onto a flexible sheet (rubber) for printing and publication.

As a printing technology, lithography is different from intaglio printing (gravure), wherein a plate is either engraved, etched, or stippled to score cavities to contain the printing ink; and woodblock printing or letterpress printing, wherein ink is applied to the raised surfaces of letters or images. Today, most types of high-volume books and magazines, especially when illustrated in colour, are printed with offset lithography, which has become the most common form of printing technology since the 1960s.

The related term "photolithography" refers to when photographic images are used in lithographic printing, whether these images are printed directly from a stone or from a metal plate, as in offset printing. In fact, "photolithography" is used synonymously with "offset printing". The technique as well as the term were introduced in Europe in the 1850s. Beginning in the 1960s, photolithography has played an important role in the fabrication and mass production of integrated circuits in the microelectronics industry.

  History of Printing 

Woodblock printing 200 Movable type 1040 Printing press c. 1440 Etching c. 1515 Mezzotint 1642 Aquatint 1772 Lithography 1796 Chromolithography 1837 Rotary press 1843 Hectograph 1869 Offset printing 1875 Hot metal typesetting 1884 Mimeograph 1886 Photostat and rectigraph 1907 Screen printing 1910 Spirit duplicator 1923 Dot matrix printing 1925 Xerography 1938 Phototypesetting 1949 Inkjet printing 1951 Dye-sublimation 1957 Laser printing 1969 Thermal printing c. 1972 DNA printing c. 1972 3D printing 1984 Digital printing 1991